Logika: Programming Logics
6. Loop, Invariants, Induction

# 6. Loops, Invariants, Induction¶

At the end of the previous chapter, we saw that a function that recursively calls (“restarts”) itself reuses its own pre- and post-conditions to deduce the knowledge gained from the recursions. A loop is a command that restarts itself over and over, and it is like a function that restarts itself over and over.

If we think of a loop as a function that restarts itself each iteration, then we must ask, “What are the pre- and post-conditions?” Since the loop iterations follow one another, it must be that the post-condition from the end of the previous iteration is the exactly the pre-condition for starting the next iteration – the loop’s “pre” and “post” conditions are one and the same. The loop’s pre-post-condition is called the loop’s invariant. We will develop this idea and other important ideas in this chapter.

## 6.1. While Loops¶

In the previous chapter, we saw how factorial is defined as a recurrence:

0! == 1
n! == (n-1)! * n,   for  n > 0


But we can understand factorial as a repeated product: for integer n > 0:

n! == 1 * 2 * 3 * ...up to... * n


It is easy to write a loop program that computes the repeated product:

n = readInt("Type a nonnegative int: ")
assert n >= 0
i = 0
fac = 1

while i != n :
i = i + 1
fac = fac * i

print n, fac


The loop adjoins the multiplications, *1, *2, *3, etc., to the running total, fac, until the loop reaches i == n. Consider some execution cases:

n == 0: the loop repeats 0 times: it computes  fac == 1  ==  0!
n == 1: the loop repeats 1 time:  it computes  fac == 1 * 1  ==  1!
n == 2: the loop repeats 2 times: it computes  fac == (1 * 1) * 2  ==  2!
n == 3: the loop repeats 3 times: it computes  fac == (1 * 1 * 2) * 3  ==  3!
n == 4: the loop repeats 4 times: it computes  fac == (1 * 1 * 2 * 3) * 4  ==  4!
. . .
the loop repeats k+1 times: it computes  fac == (k!) * (k+1)  ==  (k+1)!


For input, n == 4, the loop computes correctly 4! in 4 iterations because the loop computes correctly 3! in 3 iterations – the fourth loop iteration builds upon the work of the previous three. This is the standard use of a loop: each loop iteration builds on the previous iterations to move one step closer to the final goal.

We should always ask this crucial question about every loop we write:

Say that the loop has been running for some iterations; what has it accomplished so far?

For the factorial example, the response is: “after i iterations, variable fac has the value, i!, that is, fac == i!.”

This answer is important, because it reveals the strategy the loop uses to reach its goal in stages: as i counts upwards towards n, fac == i! repeatedly holds true. Because the loop stops when i == n, this means the loop will achieve its goal: fac == n!.

The answer to the “crucial question” listed above is the loop’s invariant property. Now, why is it an invariant, like the global-variable invariants from the previous chapter?

This is because the output from the loop’s prior iterations flows into the loop’s next iteration. So, whatever is accomplished looks the same, iteration after iteration after iteration. This is a logical property that can be proved:

We deduce the invariant property on the factorial-loop body like this:

"""{ fac == i! }"""   (we have conducted  i  iterations so far)
i = i + 1
"""
{ 1. i == i_old + 1          premise
2. fac == (i_old)!         premise
3. fac == (i-1)!           algebra 2 1 }
"""
fac = fac * i
"""
{ 1. fac == fac_old * i      premise
2. fac_old == (i-1)!       premise
3. fac == (i-1)! * i       subst 2 1
4. fac == i!               definition of  i! }
"""    (we have completed one more iteration and the invariant reappears)


The assertion that results from doing one more loop iteration is the same as the assertion we had when we started the iteration! Of course, the loop counter, i, gets larger by one, meaning that we are closer to achieving the final goal, but the changing values of fac and i ensure that fac == i! remains true: “after i iterations, fac has value i!.”

This property holds true — it is invariant for no matter how many times the loop repeats. The invariant property documents the loop’s structure – how the loop achieves its goal. It is a one-line summary of the code, and for this reason it is valuable documentation, whether it is stated in English words or in algebra symbols.

If we think of a program as an electronic circuit, where knowledge flows along the wires instead of voltage, then a loop program is a feedback circuit, where a voltage, I, is forced backwards into the circuit’s entry:

     I|
v         I
+->while B : ---->
|   I|
|    v
|    C
I|    |
+----+


The voltage (knowledge) level, I, must be stable along the back arc of the circuit, else the circuit will oscillate and misbehave. A loop works the same way —for the loop’s iterations to progress towards a goal, there must be stable knowledge along the back arc. The invariant property is actually quite natural. Consider this sequence of commands, which computes 3!:

n = 3
i = 0
fac = 1
"""{ i == 0  ^  fac == i!  }"""
i = i + 1
fac = fac * i
"""{ i == 1  ^  fac == i!  }"""
i = i + 1
fac = fac * i
"""{ i == 2  ^  fac == i!  }"""
i = i + 1
fac = fac * i
"""{ i == 3  ^  fac == i!  }"""
print n, fac


This little example is just the loop repeated three times. The invariant, fac == i!, is critical to the success of the computation. Notice how the knowledge generated by completing one iteration “feeds into” the next iteration. And, after each iteration, that knowledge is that fac == i!.

When the loop for factorial quits, what do we know?

n = readInt("Type a nonnegative int: ")
assert n >= 0
"""{ n >= 0 }"""
i = 0
fac = 1
"""{ fac == i! }"""

while i != n :
"""{ fac == i! }"""
i = i + 1
fac = fac * i
"""{ fac == i! }"""

"""{ ??? }"""
print n, fac


For certain, when the loop quits after i iterations, we know that fac == i! (i remembers the number of loop iterations). But we also know that the loop’s test has gone false, that is, ~(i != n), that is, i == n:

n = readInt("Type a nonnegative int: ")
assert n >= 0
i = 0
fac = 1
"""{ fac == i! }"""
while i != n :
"""{ fac == i! }"""
i = i + 1
fac == fac * i
"""{ fac == i! }"""

"""
{ 1. i == n     premise    (the loop's test has gone False)
2. fac == i!  premise    (the invariant holds at the end of each interation)
3. fac = n!   subst 1 2  (the loop accomplished its goal) }
"""
print n, fac


Since the loop terminated at the correct time, fac holds the correct answer.

Here is a summary of the main points just made:

• A loop is a function that repeatedly calls itself. (It is a tail-recursive function.)

• The loop’s invariant states a strategy for accomplishing a goal:

the loop has been running for awhile; what has it accomplished so far?

• The loop’s invariant is exactly the precondition for executing the loop’s body, and it is exactly the postcondition of what is generated by executing the loop’s body.

• When the loop terminates, the falsity of the termination test coupled with the invariant should imply that the loop has achieved its goal.

Even if you forget all about algebra and proofs, whenever you write a loop, document the loop with its invariant stated in words. If you are unable to state in words the invariant, then you don’t understand yourself what your loop is doing.

### 6.1.1. Law for While-Loops¶

Here is the law we use for deducing the properties of a while-loop. It uses an invariant assertion, I:

"""{ ... I }"""  (we must prove this True before the loop is entered)
while B :
"""
{ invariant  I
modifies  VARLIST   (the variables updated in  C) }
"""
"""
{ 1. B   premise
2. I   premise       (the premises for the loop's body)
... }
"""
C
"""{ ... I }"""        (we must prove  I  at the end of the body)

"""
{ 1. ~B    premise
2. I     premise       (both  ~B  and  I  hold true when the loop terminates)
... }
"""


That is, to deduce the knowledge produced by a while-loop (when we do not know in advance how many times the loop will iterate), we must deduce an invariant I that:

1. is proved true the first time we enter the loop
2. is proved true at the end of the loop’s body

Then, no matter how many times (0,1,2,…) the loop repeats, we know that I must hold true when the loop stops. We also know ~B holds when the loop stops.

Because the loop will update some variables in its body, we must know these variables’ names, so that any premises other than the loop invariant that enter the loop body that mention these variables are cancelled. We see this below in an example:

Here is the factorial example, reassembled to use the while-law:

"""
{ def  0! == 1             # these are the recurrences that define  n!
def  k! == (k-1)! * k }
"""
n = readInt("Type a nonnegative int: ")
assert n >= 0
"""{ 1. n >= 0                 premise  }"""
i = 0
fac = 1
"""
{ 1. i == 0                    premise
2. fac == 1                  premise
3. 0! == 1                   def (of 0!)
4. fac == i!                 algebra 1 2 3 }
"""
while i != n :
"""
{ invariant  fac == i!
modifies i, fac }
"""
# Here, the invariant is a legal premise, but
#   i == 0,  fac == 1,  and  fac == 0!  ARE NOT,
#   because  i  and  fac  are modified by the loop's body
"""
{ 1. i != n                premise
2. fac == i!             premise  }
"""
i = i + 1
"""
{ 1. i == i_old + 1        premise
2. i_old == i - 1        algebra 1
3. fac == (i_old)!       premise  # from the invariant
4. fac == (i-1)!         subst 2 3
}
"""
fac = fac * i
"""
{ 1. fac == fac_old * i    premise
2. fac_old == (i-1)!     premise
3. fac == (i-1)! * i     subst 2 1
4. i! == (i-1)! * i      def (of i!)
5. fac == i!             algebra 3 4
}
"""
# the loop ends here

"""
{ 1. not(i != n)               premise
2. i == n                    algebra 1
3. fac == i!                 premise
4. fac == n!                 subst 2 3 }
"""
print n, fac


A challenge lies in formulating the appropriate invariant that states what the loop is accomplishing while it repeats. Invariant discovery is an art form; there cannot exist a mechanical algorithm to do this. (This is a key result of computability theory, the study of what problems are mechanically solvable.) So, we now study how to discover loop invariants.

## 6.2. Examples of Invariant Discovery¶

A key intellectual task in programming is stating a loop’s invariant. The invariant tells us “what the loop is doing” as it iterates – progresses in small steps – towards its goal.

IMPORTANT: Saying what “the loop is doing” is different from saying what the loop “will do” before it starts or what the loop “has done” after it has finished. We must ask the crucial question:

Say that the loop has been running for a while – what has it accomplished so far?

The answer to this question, whether stated in English or algebra, is the invariant, the loop’s true meaning.

Following are some examples of invariant discovery.

### 6.2.1. Multiplication as Repeated Addition¶

Most people forget that the Greeks and Arabs intended multiplication to be just repeated addition. So, what does this program print for z when it finishes? What is the loop’s invariant? (How does the loop reach its goal?)

x = readInt("Type an int: ")
z = 0
count = 0

while count != x :
print "(a) x =", x, " y =", y, " count =", count, " z =", z
"""
{ invariant  ???
modifies   z, count }
"""
z = z + y
count = count + 1

print "(b) x =", x, " y =", y, " count =", count, " z =", z


Apparently, this program computes x * y and saves it in z. To understand, we execute a test case and watch what is printed:

Type an int: 3
Type another: 4
(a) x = 3  y = 4  count = 0  z = 0
(a) x = 3  y = 4  count = 1  z = 4
(a) x = 3  y = 4  count = 2  z = 8
(b) x = 3  y = 4  count = 3  z = 12


The trace information in each row shows this pattern between the values of the variables:

count * y  == z


This is what the loop is doing — what is means — z holds the value of count * y. Because the loop stops when count == x, we conclude that z == x * y.

We can apply logic laws to prove that count * y == z is invariant for the loop’s body:

"""{ 1.  count * y == z          premise  }"""
z = z + y
"""
{ 1. z == z_old + y              premise
2. count * y == z_old          premise
3. (count + 1) * y  == z       algebra 2 1 }
"""
count = count + 1
"""
{ 1. count == count_old + 1      premise
2. (count_old + 1) * y == z    premise
3. count * y == z              subst 1 2 }
"""


Now, we insert this subproof into the program’s proof:

z = 0
count = 0
"""
{ 1. z == 0                          premise
2. count == 0                      premise
3. count * y == z                  algebra 1 2 }
"""
while count != x :
"""
{ invariant  count * y == z
modifies   z  count   }
"""
"""{ 1.  count * y == z          premise  }"""
z = z + y
"""
{ 1. z == z_old + y              premise
2. count * y == z_old          premise
3. (count + 1) * y  == z       algebra 2 1 }
"""
count = count + 1
"""
{ 1. count == count_old + 1      premise
2. (count_old + 1) * y == z    premise
3. count * y == z              subst 1 2 }
"""

"""
{ 1. ~(count != x)                   premise
2. count == x                      algebra 1
3. count * y == z                  premise
4. x * y == z                      subst 2 3 }
"""


### 6.2.2. Programming as Game Theory; Invariants as Strategies¶

There are strong connections between algorithmics and game theory. Just about any programming problem can be thought of as a game to be played and won. An algorithm (program) is a list of moves for playing (and winning) the game. In particular, a loop program is a recipe for a game that is played in rounds, where each loop iteration is one round of the game. Parallel and synchronization algorithms are portrayed as multi-player games, and classic sequential programs, like the ones we study, are single-player games.

For a single-player game that is coded as a loop, the loop’s invariant tells the strategy the loop uses to to win the game.

Consider the multiplication example in the previous section. It is a game, where the objective is place into z the value of x * y, using only the + operator. To win the game, we must play multiple rounds of addition. We decide that we will do the following moves at each round:

z = z + y
count = count + 1


until count == x. Now, what is the strategy underlying our moves? The invariant tells us:

"""{ count * y == z }"""
z = z + y
count = count + 1
"""{ count * y == z }"""


That is, we are moving count-many copies of y into z. Because the invariant holds at the start of each round, we can exploit it to move one more round. When count == x, our rounds end, and our strategy implies that we won the game.

### 6.2.3. Example: Controlling a Single Player Game: Pebbles¶

Loops are often used as “controllers” for real-time and interactive systems. In what sense is a controller’s invariant a “strategy”? Let’s take a look:

Here is a little computer game, where we have two boxes, an in-box and an out-box. Say the computer places some secret quantity of pebbles into the in-box. Each round, the game’s player must guess a quantity of pebbles to move from the in-box to the out-box. Rounds are played over and over until either:

• the in-box is empty – the player wins
• the player asks to move more pebbles than what remain in the in-box – the player loses

The computerized game uses a controller loop that enforces the rules of the game. The loop’s invariant and a global invariant state the game’s rules:

# One-player pebble game:
import random                       # Python random-number-generator module
total = random.randrange(1,100)     # choose a quantity between 1 and 99
assert total >= 1 and total <= 99   # this is  randrange(1,100)'s postcondition

inbox = total
outbox = 0
win = False
lose = False
"""{ globalinv   win == (inbox == 0) ^  ~(win and lose) }"""

while not(win or lose) :
"""
{ invariant  inbox + outbox == total  and  inbox >= 0
modifies inbox, outbox, play }
"""
# here,  ~win ^ ~lose  holds true,  thanks to the loop test
quantity = playerMakeMove()
if quantity > inbox :
lose = True     # globalinv still holds tree
else :
inbox = inbox - quantity
outbox = outbox + quantity   # loop invariant still holds true
if inbox == 0 :
win = True  # this reestablishes the globalinv

# Exited loop --- game's over.  We have these facts:
#   win or lose
#   inbox + outbox == total  and  inbox >= 0
#   win == (inbox == 0) ^  ~(win and lose)

# We use these to deduce that
#    (i) there is either a win or a loss (but not both)
#   (ii) a win means that  inbox == 0
#   (iii) no pebbles were lost when moving them from the inbox


The controller’s “strategy” (loop invariant) explains how the controller/loop enforces the rules of the game.

But there is also a player of the game – Once we code playerMakeMove, we have a completed game. Here is the specification for the missing component:

def playerMakeMove():
"""
{ pre    True
post   move > 0
return move }
"""


Here are three implementations, all of which satisfy the specification:

1. Implementation 1

def playerMakeMove():
move = 1
return move

2. Implementation 2

def playerMakeMove():
import random
move = random.randrange(1,10)
return move

3. Implementation 3

def playerMakeMove();
if move <= 0 :
move = -(move-1)
return move


Which of the above codings will win most often? (From the player’s perspective, the completed game would have this winning strategy: not lose and inbox + outbox == total and inbox >= 0. That is, as long as each round begins and ends with the player “playing fair” and not losing, the player is on the path to a win.)

The specifications and loop invariants help us analyze the program and show why it plays the game correctly.

### 6.2.4. A Board Game: Global (Class) Invariant + Loop Invariant¶

Next, consider a board game like Sudoku: There is a data structure (a grid), and each round the player tries to insert a digit into one cell of the grid. The computerized game is built in a Model-View-Controller (MVC) architecture, where:

• the grid is the Model module;
• the loop that counts the rounds is the Controller module; and
• the View module displays the grid and interacts with the player to read moves.

Here is an outline of the Model of the Sudoku board:

# Model.py  --- model of N-by-N sudoku gameboard
grid = ...grid of N-rows and N-columns of ints and blank spaces...

"""
{ globalinv   forall 0 <= row < N,  forall 0 <= i < N,
i appears at most once in  grid[row]
globalinv   forall 0 <= col < N,  forall 0 <= i < N,
i appears at most once in  grid[_][col] }
"""
# Recall that the methods below must preserve the global invariants!

def insert(num, rowindex, colindex):
"""
{ pre   0 <= rowindex < N  and  0 <= colindex < N  and  0 <= num < N
and  grid[rowindex][colindex] == " "
post  grid[rowindex][colindex] == num
and forall 0 <= r < N, 0 <= c < N,
(r != rowindex and c != colindex) -> grid[r][c] == grid_in[r][c] }
"""
grid[rowindex][colindex] = num
if  not(global invariant stated above) :
grid[rowindex][colindex] = " "   # undo assignment
print "insertion error"          # a wasted move

def gameNotOver():
"""
{ pre    True
post   ans == not(for all 0 <= r < N, 0 <= c < N,  grid[r][c] != " ")
return ans }
"""
...searches  grid  to find any " " values...


The Model’s global invariant enforces that the grid is always well formed, and the insert method enforces the invariant. This allows insert to be called repetitively, say, within a loop body. The Controller module is a loop that runs the rounds of the game, maintaining the game board, the score, and any other rules of play:

# Controller.py  ---  controller for Sudoku game:
import Model

guesses = 0   # remembers how many total guesses the player makes
while Model.gameNotOver() :
"""{ invariant ...all rules of play are enforced...  and  guesses >= 0  }"""
(numberToInsert, rowindex, colindex) = View.playerMakeMove()
Model.insert(numberToInsert, rowindex, colindex)
... do any needed rules enforcement here ...
guesses = guesses + 1

# Loop exits, and we have these facts:
#   not Model.gameNotOver()  --- see the method's postcondition
#   ...all rules of play are enforced...  and  guesses >= 0
# Hence, the player has won' with the score' of  guesses


For this simple example, the key invariants are the ones inside the Model. The Controller enforces a “protocol” between the player and the Model, ensuring that the Model’s invariant as well as all other game rules are preserved.

### 6.2.5. Two-player Games == Protocols¶

The rules for a multi-player game are called a protocol because the rules ensure a controlled interaction between the players. The game’s controller enforces the protocol. Temporal logic is a form of symbolic logic used to define protocols. We can’t study temporal logic here, but we can note that the loop invariant for a multiplayer game states a protocol that in real-life situations is precisely coded in temporal logic.

Here is the controller for a two-player counting game, where the first player shouts a number and the second player, who hears the number, must shout a reply number such that the sum of the two is even valued:

total = 0
while True :
"""{ invariant  total % 2 == 0  }"""   # total  is even valued
request = ProcessOne.shoutNumber()
if (request + reply) % 2 == 0 :
total == total + (request + reply)
else :
ProcessOne.reset("try again")
ProcessTwo.reset("try again")


Modules ProcessOne and ProcessTwo have methods for generating numbers, responses, and resets. The controller’s invariant enforces the protocol — the rules — for playing the game (for enacting the controlled communication).

A classic two-player game, like chess, operates with a Model module (the chess board) whose invariants enforce the rules of board layout and piece movement. The Controller module uses a loop that enforces the order of interaction between the players — the protocol — which might also include time constraints on the moves. The View module displays the state of the Model and forwards the players’ communications to the controller.

### 6.2.6. Division as Repeated Subtraction¶

Back to more traditional number games: Maybe you remember that division was invented to represent repeated subtraction, e.g., “how many times can you subtract 4 from 20? (5) — 4 goes into 20 five times — 20 divided by 4 is 5 (with remainder 0)”.

Here is the program that does repeated subtraction like division is meant to do:

n = readInt("Type an nonegative int: ")
d = readInt("Type a positive int: ")
assert n >= 0  and  d > 0
q = 0
r = n

while r >= d :
print "(a) n =", n, " d =", d, " q =", q, " r =", r
"""
{ invariant: ???
modifies q r }
"""
q = q + 1
r = r - d

print "(b) n =", n, " d =", d, " q =", q, " r =", r
print n, "divided by", d, "is", q, "with remainder", r


Here is a sample execution with trace information printed:

Type an nonegative int: 14
Type a positive int: 3
(a) n = 14  d = 3  q = 0  r = 14
(a) n = 14  d = 3  q = 1  r = 11
(a) n = 14  d = 3  q = 2  r = 8
(a) n = 14  d = 3  q = 3  r = 5
(b) n = 14  d = 3  q = 4  r = 2
14 divided by 3 is 4 with remainder 2


This is a “numbers game”, where we are allowed to use only + and - on the numbers. The underlying strategy (invariant) at point (a) is:

"""{ invariant  (d * q) + r == n  }"""


When the loop quits, that is, when there is no longer enough value in r to allow yet one more subtraction of q, then the result is exactly the quotient-remainder that results from dividing n by d.

### 6.2.7. Averaging Test Scores¶

Even a task like summing scores and computing their average depends on a loop invariant:

count = 0  # how many scores read so far
total = 0  # the points of all the scores read so far
processing = True
"""{ total == 0  }"""
while processing :
"""
{ invariant  total == score_1 + score_2 + ...up to... + score_count
modifies  processing, total, count }
"""
score = readInt("Type next score (-1 to quit): ")
if score < 0 :
processing = False
"""{ total == score_1 + score_2 + ...up to... + score_count }"""
else :
total = total + score
"""{ total == score_1 + score_2 + ...up to... + score_count+1 }"""
count = count + 1
"""{ total == score_1 + score_2 + ...up to... + score_count }"""

"""{ total == score_1 + score_2 + ...up to... + score_count }"""
print "The average is", (float(total) / count)  # compute a fractional average


total holds the sum of the scores read so far: when count is 1, total holds the sum of one score; when count equals 2, total holds the sum of two scores, and so on. We write the pattern like this:

total  =  score_1 + score_2 + ...up to... + score_count


Here, score_i denotes the input score that was read at the loop’s i-th iteration.

When the loop starts, there are no scores saved in total. In a technical, default sense, the sum of total = score_1 + ...up to... + score_0 is an “empty sum”, which is treated by mathematicians as 0. (You can’t count from 1 “up to” 0 —it is an empty range of values.) This means the invariant holds for zero iterations of the loop, which allows us to enter the loop and then prove that the invariant is preserved as the loop repeats and then quits.

### 6.2.8. Reversing a Word¶

Let’s make a function that reverses a word, w, and returns the reversed word. The specification is

def reverse(w) :
"""reverse reverses the letters in  w  and returns the answer"""
"""
{ pre    w  is a string
post   ans == w[len(w)-1] w[len(w)-2] ...down to... w[1] w[0]
return ans }
"""


How to do it? Think of it as a game: count through the letters of w and copy each letter to the front of variable string ans. Round number i of the game would go

ans = w[i] + ans
i = i + 1


When we apply this repeatedly, we get the desired behavior – we win the game:

after 0 iterations:  w = "abcd"   i = 0   ans = ""
after 1 iteration:   w = "abcd"   i = 1   ans = "a"
after 2 iterations:  w = "abcd"   i = 2   ans = "ba"
after 3 iterations:  w = "abcd"   i = 3   ans = "cba"
after 4 iterations:  w = "abcd"   i = 4   ans = "dcba"


The strategy for playing the rounds of the game is exactly the loop’s invariant: the first i letters of w are saved in reverse order within ans:

ans =  w[i-1] w[i-2] ...down to... w[0]


You should check that this is indeed an invariant property of the proposed loop body above. This completes the function:

def reverse(w) :
"""reverse reverses the letters in  w  and returns the answer"""
"""
{ pre    w  is a string
post   ans == w[len(w)-1] w[len(w)-2] ...down to... w[1] w[0]
return ans }
"""
ans = ""
i = 0
"""
{ 1. ans == ""                                                       premise
2. ans == w[i-1] w[i-2] ...down to... w[0]                         algebra 1
# "-1 down-to 0" is an empty range of characters from  w
}
"""
while i != len(w) :
"""
{ invariant  ans ==  w[i-1] w[i-2] ...down to... w[0]
modifies  ans, i }
"""
ans = w[i] + ans
"""
{ 1. ans == w[i] + ans_old                                       premise
2. ans_old == w[i-1] w[i-2] ...down to... w[0]                 premise
3. ans == w[i] + w[i-1] w[i-2] ...down to... w[0]              algebra 1 2 }
"""
i = i + 1
"""
{ 1. i == i_old + 1                                              premise
2. ans == w[i_old] + w[i_old-1] w[i_old-2] ...down to... w[0]  premise
3. i_old == i - 1                                              algebra 1
4. ans == w[i-1] w[i-2] ...down to... w[0]                     subst 3 2
}
"""

"""
{ 1. i = len(w)                                                      premise
2. ans ==  w[i-1] w[i-2] ...down to... w[0]                        premise
3. ans ==  w[len(w)-1] w[len(w)-2] ...down to... w[0]              subst 1 2 }
"""   # the function's postcondition is proved
return ans


The ellipsis (...down to...) in the invariant is a bit imprecise; we can construct the proof more precisely with the assistance of these two recurrences, which we write in the same style that we used to define factorial (n!):

rev(w, ans, 0)    if  ans == ""
rev(w, ans, k+1)  if  rev(w, a', k) and  ans == w[k] + a'


That is, rev(w, a, i) says that the first i letters of string w are saved in reverse order in string a, that is,

rev(w, a, i) exactly when a == w[i-1] + w[i-2] + …downton… + w[0]

We use the recurrence to prove that the loop’s invariant is rev(w, ans, i):

"""
{ def rev(w, ans, 0)    if  ans == ""
def rev(w, ans, k+1)  if  rev(w, a', k) and  ans == w[k] + a' }
"""

def reverse(w) :
"""reverse reverses the letters in  w  and returns the answer"""
"""
{ pre    w  is a string
post   rev(w, ans, len(w))
return ans }
"""
ans = ""
i = 0
"""
{ 1. ans == ""                                                      premise
2. rev(w, ans, 0)  if  ans == ""                                  def
3. rev(w, ans, 0)                                                 ife 2 1   # "if elimination"
4. i == 0                                                         premise
5. rev(w, ans, i)                                                 subst 4 3 }
"""
while i != len(w) :
"""
{ invariant  rev(w, ans, i)
modifies  ans, i }
"""
ans = w[i] + ans
"""
{ 1. ans == w[i] + ans_old                                      premise
2. rev(w, ans_old, i)                                         premise
3. rev(w, ans_old, i) and  ans == w[i] + ans_old              andi 2 1
4. rev(w, ans, i+1)  if  rev(w, a', i) and  ans == w[i] + a'  def
5. rev(w, ans, i+1)                                           ife 3 4 }
"""
i = i + 1
"""
{ 1. i == i_old + 1                                             premise
2. rev(w, ans, i_old+1)                                       premise
3. rev(w, ans, i)                                             subst 1 2 }
"""

"""
{ 1. not(i != len(w))                                               premise
2. rev(w, ans, i)                                                 premise
3. i == len(w)                                                    algebra 1
4. rev(w, ans, len(w))                                            subst 3 2 }
""" # the function's postcondition is proved
return ans


Recurrences are the standard way of eliminating ellipses in mathematical statements. You may find them a bit difficult to digest at first, but recurrences are surprisingly powerful and form the basis of the Prolog programming language, which is the standard programming language for artifical intelligence. You will learn about Prolog later in the course.

### 6.2.9. Squaring an Array’s Numbers¶

Say that a is an array of ints, and say we write a loop that squares each of a’s elements:

a = [5, 10, 15, 20, ... ]

i = 0
while i != len(a) :
"""{ invariant: ??? }"""
a[i] = a[i] * a[i]
i = i + 1
print a


In words, the loop’s invariant is that

while the loop is running, a’s elements, from 0 up to i, are squared, and the rest are unchanged

It is a little difficult to state this precisely with algebra notation. Our first attempt might read like this: Let a_in be the starting value of a. The invariant is

a[0] == a_in[0] * a_in[0]  ^
a[1] == a_in[1] * a_in[1]  ^
... ^ a[i-1] == a_in[i-1] * a_in[i-1]
^
a[i] == a_in[i]             ^
a[i+1] == a_in[i+1]         ^
... ^  a[len(a)-1] == a_in[len(a)-1]


This is terribly wordy.

There is a better way to represent the assertion (even better than a recurrence), using the logical operator, “forall”. (We will see that the for-all operator is written FORALL (∀), but for now we use the words, “for all”.) The invariant is

forall 0 <= j < i, a[j] == a_in[j] * a_in[j]
^
forall i <= j < len(a), a[j] == a_in[j]


That is, for all j in the range from 0 to i-1, a[j] == a_in[j] * a_in[j], and for all j in the range, i to len(a)-1, a[j] == a_in[j]. This indicates clearly that array a is split into one segment whose elements are squared and one segment whose elements are not yet altered.

When the loop quits, it is because i == len(a). In this situation, the range from i to len(a)-1 is empty – all the array’s elements are squared.

### 6.2.10. Finding a Letter in a Word¶

Here is a classic linear-search function, just the code alone, first:

def find(c, s) :
"""find  locates char  c  in string  s  and returns its index.
If  c  is not present in  s,  then  -1  is returned.
"""
index = 0  # THE POSITION IN  s  WE ARE EXAMINING
found = False  # DID WE FIND  c  YET?

# WHAT HAS HAPPENED SO FAR?  WHAT'S THE INVARIANT?
if  s[index] == c :
found = True
else :
index = index + 1

# LOOP FINISHED; DID WE FIND c ?
index = -1
else :
pass
return index


Sample calls are find("d", "abcded"), which returns 3, and find("d", "cbac"), which returns -1.

The function resembles data-base-search and optimization problems, where a loop repeats indefinitely until some quality of answer is reached. The loop invariant and exit text are critical to the function’s correctness.

It is not so easy to write the function’s specification precisely; here is one version:

def find(c, s) :
"""find locates an occurrence of  c  in  s  and returns its index.
If  c  is not present in  s,  then  -1  is returned.
parameters: c - a letter;  s - a string
"""
"""
{ pre    c  is a char  and  s  is a string
post   (index >= 0 --> s[index] == c)
and  (index == -1 --> (forall 0 <= i < len(s),  s[i] != c))
return index }
"""  # Recall that  P --> Q  means "if P holds then so does Q"


The postcondition states how the value of index communicates the result of the search. The postcondition’s two clauses become the loop invariant and a global-variable invariant:

index = 0
found = False
"""{ globalinv  found --> s[index] == c }"""  # MUST ALWAYS HOLD TRUE
# so far,  c  is not any of  s[0], s[1], ..., s[index-1]
"""
{ invariant   forall 0 <= i < index, s[i] != c
modifies  found, index }
"""
if  s[index] == c :
found = True
else :
index = index + 1


Based on how the loop terminates, the loop invariant and global invariant combine to prove the postcondition. Here is the completed analysis:

def find(c, s) :
"""find locates an occurrence of  c  in  s  and returns its index.
If  c  is not present in  s,  then  -1  is returned.
parameters: c - a letter;  s - a string
"""
"""
{ pre    c is a char  and  s  is a string
post   (index >= 0 -->  s[index] == c)
and  (index == -1 --> (forall 0 <= i < len(s),  s[i] != c))
return index
}"""  # Recall that  P --> Q  means "if P holds then so does Q"

index = 0  # the position of the  letter  in  s  we are examining
found = False  # did we find  c  in  s  yet?
"""{ globalinv  found --> s[index] == c }"""  # IMPORTANT

# so far,  c  is not any of  s[0], s[1], ..., s[index-1]
"""
{ invariant forall 0 <= i < index,  s[i] != c
modifies  found, index }
"""
if  s[index] == c :
found = True
# Reprove here that the global invariant is true (and it is! :-)
# We do NOT increment  index!  So, the loop invariant remains true.
else :
index = index + 1
# Reprove here the loop invariant

# The loop invariant is reproved in both cases.

# We have exited the loop.  This happened for one of two reasons:
#  (i) found = True,  meaning that  s[index] == c, by the globalinv
#  (ii) index = len(s), meaning  c  was not found in  s
"""
{ 1. not(index != len(s) and not found)        premise  (test is false)
2. index == len(s) or found                  SYMBOLIC LOGIC 1
3. forall 0 <= i < index,  s[i] != c         premise   (loop invariant)
4. found --> s[index] == c                   globalinv }
"""
"""
2. index == len(s) or found              premise
3. index == len(s)                       SYMBOLIC LOGIC 1 2
4. forall 0 <= i < index,  s[i] != c     premise
5. forall 0 <= i < len(s), s[i] != c     subst 3 4 }
"""
index = -1
"""
{ 1. index == - 1                          premise
2. forall 0 <= i < len(s), s[i] != c     premise
3.  AT THIS POINT, WE USE SYMBOLIC LOGIC TO PROVE  post }
"""
else :
"""
2. forall 0 <= i < index,  s[i] != c     premise
3. found --> s[index] == c               globalinv
4. s[index] == c                         SYMBOLIC LOGIC 1 3
5. AT THIS POINT, WE USE SYMBOLIC LOGIC TO PROVE  post }
"""
pass

# POSTCONDITION IS PROVED IN BOTH CASES:
"""
{ 1. (index >= 0 -->  s[index] == c)
and  (index == -1 --> forall 0 <= i < len(s),  s[i] != c)  premise }
"""
return index


The analysis requires deduction involving -->, v and ~ that exceed our current knowledge. For this reason, we will soon pause our study of programming logic for a study of symbolic logic, that is, the “algebra of logical assertions”.

#### String Search, Variation 1¶

Here is the same function but with a different specification, which means a different loop invariant is needed:

def find(c, s) :
"""
{ pre    c  is a character  and  s  is a string
post   s[index] == c
v  (index == -1 ^  forall 0<= i < len(s), s[i]!=c)
return  index }
"""
index = 0
found = False

"""
{ invariant
(~found  ^ forall 0<= i < index, s[i]!=c)
v (found  ^  c == s[index])
modifies  found, index
}
"""
if  s[index] == c :
found = True
"""{ found  ^  c == s[index] }"""
else :
index = index + 1
"""
{ ~found  ^
c != s[0] ^  forall 0<= i < index, s[i]!=c)  }
"""

index = -1
else :
pass
return index


The specification’s postcondition indicates that there are two possible outcomes from the function. By using symbolic logic, we can prove that the postcondition given here is logically equivalent (has the same knowledge content) as the one seen in the earlier example.

#### String Search, Variation 2¶

Some loops use a break command. At such a break, the loop invariant must be proved true, just as if the loop had progressed to the end of its body. Here is string search, once more:

def find(c, s) :
"""
{ pre    c  is a character  and  s  is a string
post   s[index] == c
v  (index == -1  ^  forall 0<= i < len(s), s[i]!=c)
return  index }
"""
index = 0
while index != len(s) :
"""
{ invariant  forall 0<= i < index, s[i]!=c
modifies  index }
"""
if  s[index] == c :
# invariant still holds, since we did not alter  index
break
else :
index = index + 1

# LOOP EXIT: the first premise below lists the possible exit conditions:
"""
{ 1. not(index != len(s)) or s[index] == c       premise
2. forall 0<= i < index, s[i]!= c              premise # invariant
}
"""
if index == len(s) :
"""
{ 1. index == len(s)                         premise
2. forall 0<= i < index, s[i]!= c          premise
3. forall 0<= i < len(s), s[i]!= c         subst 1 2 }
"""
index = -1
else :
"""
{ 1. not(index == len(s))                    premise
2. not(index != len(s)) or s[index] == c   premise
3. s[index] == c                           SYMBOLIC LOGIC 1 2 }
"""
pass
return index


There are two ways of exiting the loop, which are listed as the first premise at the loop’s exit.

## 6.3. Universal and Existential Assertions¶

Perhaps you expected this specification for the search function:

def find(c, s) :
"""find locates an occurrence of  c  in  s  and returns its index.
If  c  is not present in  s,  then  -1  is returned.
parameters: c - a letter;  s - a string
"""
"""
{ pre    c  is a character  and  s  is a string
post   s[index] == c
v ((index = -1) ^ c!=s[0] ^ c!=s[1] ^ ..upto.. ^ c!=s[len(s)-1])
return  index }
"""


The shortened form of stating,

c != s[0] ^ c !=s[1] ^ ...upto... ^ c!=s[index-1],


is just

FORALL 0 <= i < index: c != s[i]


There are standard laws for using FORALL, which we learn later.

The specification of the previous example now looks like this:

def find(c, s) :
"""find locates an occurrence of  c  in  s  and returns its index.
If  c  is not present in  s,  then  -1  is returned.
parameters: c - a letter;  s - a string
"""
"""
{ pre    c  is a character  and  s  is a string
post   s[index] == c
v ((index = -1) ^  FORALL 0 <= i < len(s): s[i] != c)
return  index }
"""


We can use symbolic logic to prove that this specification has the same logical information content as the one in the previous section.

There is a dual operator to FORALL that asserts existence of a value. To understand how it might be used, consider this variation of the previous example.

(Before we get started, please remember that Python allows you to compute a “slice” (substring) of a string s, like this:

• For string, s, s[:index] computes a substring that is s up to and not including s[index]:

x = "abcde"
y = x[:3]    # y = "abc"
z = x[:0]    # z = ""

• For string, s, s[index;] computes a substring that is s from s[index] to the end:

x = "abcde"
v = x[2:]   # v = "cde"
w = x[5:]   # w = ""


.)

Here is the example:

def delete(c, s) :
"""delete locates an occurrence of  c  in  s  and
removes it and returns the resulting string.
If  c  is not in  s, a copy of  s  is returned, unchanged.
parameters: c - a letter;  s - a string
returns: answer, a new string that looks like  s  with  c  removed
"""
"""
{ pre    c  is a letter and  s  is a string
post   (s[index] == c  ^  answer == s[:index] + s[index+1:])
v
(answer == s  ^  (FORALL 0 <= i < len(s): s[i] != c))
"""
index = 0
found = False
if  s[index] == c :
found = True
else :
ans = ans + s[index]
index = index + 1

if found :
else :
pass


Examples: delete("d", "abcded") returns "abced", and delete("d", "abc") returns "abc". You are welcome to deduce that the program meets its postcondition. (Reuse the loop invariant from find in the previous exercise.)

But there is a technical problem – variable index is a variable local to the function’s body and is not part of the precondition nor is it part of the answer returned by delete – it makes no sense to include it in the postcondition. Worse yet, its presence can lead to false deductions at the point where the function is called!

(An example:

index = 2
t = "abcd"
u = delete("a", t)
"""{ at this point, we certainly cannot assert that t[2] = "a"! }"""


.)

We must hide the name, index, from the function’s postcondition. We do it like this:

EXIST 0 <= i < len(s):  s[i] = c  ^  answer = s[:i] + s[i+1:]


Read EXIST (∃) as “there exists”; it is called an existential quantifier. So, the assertion reads, “there exists some value i, such that i is >=0 and < len(s) such that s[i] = c ^ answer = s[:i] + s[i+1:]”.

The existential quantifier hides the local variable name inside function delete so that it is not incorrectly used by the command that calls the function. We will study both FORALL and EXIST in Chapter 6.

## 6.4. Partial and Total Correctness¶

Consider again the proved factorial example:

def fact(n) :
"""
{ pre    n >= 0
"""
i = 0
while i != n :
"""{ invariant  answer == i!    modifies  fac i }"""
"""{ answer == i! * (i+1)  }"""
i = i + 1

"""
{ 1. i == n
"""


What happens for fact(-1)? No answer is returned because the precondition is violated and the loop is unable to terminate. What if we ignored the function’s precondition – the proof of the loop remains the same?!

The deduction law for loops guarantees, if the loop terminates, then the postcondition must hold true. There can be silly applications of the loop law. Consider this faulty program:

def f(n) :
"""
{ pre  n is an int
"""
i = 0
while i != n :
"""{  invariant  answer == i! }"""
pass
"""{ answer == i! }"""  # but no variables are modified!

"""
{ 1. i == n
"""


The proof of f’s postcondition is correct: But the loop body preserves the invariant only because its body, pass, is too timid to make any progress at all towards the goal. So, the loop never terminates. Now, if the loop would terminate, then the proof shows we will achieve the goal. But, for every argument but 0, the loop will not terminate.

Because of this limitation of the loop law, it is called a partial correctness law. To ensure total correctness, that is, to prove the loop must terminate and satisfies its goal, we must use additional reasoning. The reasoning is usually based on a numerical, “count down” measure, which measures the number of iterations the loop needs to do before it quits and achieves its goal. In the first example,

def fact(n) :
"""
{ pre    n >= 0
"""
i = 0
while i != n :
"""
termination measure   n - i  # must compute to a nonnegative int
}
"""
i = i + 1
# at this point, the termination measure has decreased

# at this point, the termination measure equals 0
"""{ i == n  ^  answer == i! }"""


The numerical expression, n - i, measures an upper bound of how many iterations are needed to cause the loop to quit. The value of the measure must always compute to a nonnegative integer, and after each iteration of the loop, the measure must decrease by at least 1. This means, after some finite number of iterations, the measure hits 0 and the loop stops.

We won’t develop this further….

## 6.5. An Introduction to Mathematical Induction¶

There is a fundamental mathematical principle that underlies invariants and the loop law. It is called mathematical induction. We will introduce mathematical induction by examples seen earlier.

Go back to the first section in this chapter. It says this:

… factorial is defined as a recurrence:

0! == 1
n! == (n-1)! * n,   for  n > 0


But we can understand factorial as a repeated product: for integer n > 0:

n! == 1 * 2 * 3 * ...up to... * n


Now, why is it that k! must equal 1 * 2 * 3 * ...up to... * k, for any nonnegative k that we choose?

A typical computer programmer would pretend that the definition of ! is “computer code” and would invent some test cases to try out this claim. For example, we can test 5! like this:

5! == (5-1)! * 5 == 4! * 5


To finish this test, we must write out the test case for 4!. Before we grind out 4! (and 3! and 2! and …), we can make an important observation: if the test case for 4! works out correctly, so will the test case for 5!, because:

5! == 4! * 5
and if  4! == 1 * 2 * 3 * 4
this means
5! == (1 * 2 * 3 * 4) * 5
and the claim will hold for 5!, too:
5! == 1 * 2 * 3 * 4 * 5


This observation holds not only for 5! but for every positive integer, k: the success of the immediately smaller test case, k - 1, leads to the success of k. There is an important principle hiding here: there are only two test cases that matter: 0! and k!, for positive int k. This will save us a lot of time testing the definition of !.

Now, go back to the beginning of this chapter, where there is a loop that computes factorial by repeated multiplications. There is this quote after the loop code:

The loop adjoins the multiplications, *1, *2, *3, etc., to the running total, fac, until the loop reaches i == n. Consider some execution cases:

n == 0: the loop repeats 0 times: it computes  fac == 1  ==  0!
n == 1: the loop repeats 1 time:  it computes  fac == 1 * 1  ==  1!
n == 2: the loop repeats 2 times: it computes  fac == (1 * 1) * 2  ==  2!
n == 3: the loop repeats 3 times: it computes  fac == (1 * 1 * 2) * 3  ==  3!
n == 4: the loop repeats 4 times: it computes  fac == (1 * 1 * 2 * 3) * 4  ==  4!
. . .
the loop repeats k+1 times: it computes  fac == (k!) * (k+1)  ==  (k+1)!


For example, when input n == 4, the loop computes correctly 4! in 4 iterations because the loop computes correctly 3! in 3 iterations – the fourth loop iteration builds upon the work of the previous three. This is the standard use of a loop: each loop iteration builds on the previous iterations to move one step closer to the final goal.

The same principle is hiding in the loop code – the correctness of a loop’s computation depends on the correctness of the previous iterations.

The principle inside the definition of factorial and the loop code is called mathematical induction.

### 6.5.1. Formal Statement of The Mathematical Induction Proof Law¶

The mathematical induction proof law was formulated almost the same time as the counting numbers (nonnegative ints), 0, 1, 2, …, were invented. We should think of the nonnegative ints as a “chain” of numbers, “linked” together by +1s. So, the successor to, say, 5, is 6 because the latter is linked to the former by +1. Similarly, the predecessor to 5 is 4. Of course, 0 has no predecessor.

Say that we have a question to answer, or a problem to solve, or a program to test, and there are an infinite number of possibilities/cases/tests to consider. We cannot consider all the possibilities one by one. How do we cover them all? Proof by mathematical induction shows us how:

For the question/problem/program, say that we can arrange its possibilities/cases/tests so that they are ordered as 0, 1, 2, 3,…. To cover all the cases and prove our goal, we write two proofs:

1. Basis Case: We calculate/deduce directly the correct result for for Case 0.
2. Induction Case: For a positive int, k, we pretend/presume that Case k - 1 has a correct result. (Remember, for the moment, we pretend this!) This premise is called the induction hypothesis. Then we use the induction hypothesis to calculate/deduce the correct result for Case k+1.

With these two Cases worked completely, the mathematical induction proof law lets us conclude that,

for all nonnegative ints, n >= 0, Case n must be correct.

This is because every nonnegative int, n, has a position in the infinite chain, 0, 1, 2, 3, …, and we can use the Basis and Induction Cases to assemble a correctness proof for every nonnegative int, n, we might pick, in terms of the correctness of all its predecessor ints in the chain.

(To spell this out in complete detail, here is an example: We write correctness proofs for the Basis case and the Induction case. We then pick an int – 6. Here is the correctness proof for 6: We use the Basis Case to assemble the correctess proof for 0. We then insert this proof in place of the induction hypothesis in the Induction Case to assemble a correctness proof for 1. We then insert this proof, the proof for 1 in place of the induction hypothesis in the Induction Case to assemble a correctness proof for 2. We then insert this proof in place of the induction hypothesis in the Induction Case to assemble a correctness proof for 3. And we continue doing this until we assemble the correctness proof for 6. Since all the ints are chained together, this technique assembles a proof for every nonnegative int.)

### 6.5.2. First Example: Factorial is Repeated Multiplication¶

We can now prove this claim: for every nonnegative int, n, n! == 1 * 2 * ...upto... * n.

(Note: we use the standard math convention that the “empty multiplication” equals one: 1 * 2 * ...upto... * 0 == 1.)

We prove n! == 1 * 2 * ...upto... * n by mathematical induction:

1. Basis Case: the argument, n, is 0: so 0! == 1, and 1 * 2 * ...upto... 0 == 1 also. The claim is proved for this case.

2. Induction Case: the argument, n, is a positive int: assume the induction hypothesis, that is, (n-1)! == 1 * 2 * ...up to... * (n-1) is proved for the predecessor case. Now, consider n! == (n-1)! * n. We substitute the induction hypothesis into the previous definition, giving us:

n! == (1 * 2 *...up to... * (n-1)) * n.


But multiplication is associative, meaning that we have proved the result in this case, too:

n! == 1 * 2 * ...up to... * n


This claim is proved.

Since both cases are proved correct, the claim is proved for all n >= 0.

We now realize that when we do a test of, say, 5!, by expanding it to 4! * 5, and then we start the test of 4!, etc., what we are doing is applying the Induction case repeatedly, counting downwards to the Base case of 0!.

### 6.5.3. Testing Loop Code Systematically¶

Many programmers test their loops by randomly choosing a few test cases that “run the loop for awhile”. When the tests finish, there is still no guarantee that the loop operates properly in all cases. Mathematical induction gives us the insight we need to test loop code systematically:

Test the loop’s body, not the entire loop.

A loop body is “repeatable code” — it repeats so that variables are repeatedly updated in a systematic way. To test the loop body, think this way:

Pretend the loop has been running for awhile, working correctly. Test that running the the loop’s body one more time keeps the loop working correctly.

This is like the induction case of a mathematical induction proof – no matter how many repetitions occur, the loop is always working correctly.

Better still, we should write a formula or expression or a sentence that describes the values of the variables used by the loop and what it means to “work correctly”. Then we test this formula/sentence with the loop body.

For example, here is the loop that does multiplication by repeated additions:

while count != x :
z = z + y
count = count + 1


The loop updates z and count. We can blindly test the loop, but we will save time if we ask what it means for the loop’s body to “work correctly”. The secret to the loop is that z is holding the value of a running product:

z == count * y


So, if the values of z and count are set correctly reset when the loop body repeats, then the loop is correctly working, because it leads us back to z == count * y (so that we are set for the next repetition).

You pull out the loop body and test it, like this:

y = readInt()
assert z == count * y   # The test inputs you use must be related correctly
#  so that we can test whether the loop body is
#  ''repeatable code''
z = z + y
count = count + 1
assert z == count * y   # Verify that the variables are still related correctly


The formula, z == count * y, tells us what to test for at the beginning and end of the loop body. (Many people test code, not knowing what they are testing for!)

Of course, a repeatable test condition is a kind of invariant, and the above test methodology is the induction step of a mathematical induction proof. If you know what to test for, you can test an entire loop by just testing its body.

OK, you probably don’t want to extract loop bodies and write test harnesses for them. Well, you can at least add just one line of run-time monitoring code to your loop:

while count != x :
assert  z == count * y
z = z + y
count = count + 1


Now, when you test the entire program, you are testing your loop bodies to ensure they are repeatable code.

### 6.5.4. Proofs of Recursive Functions and Loops are Mathematical-Induction Proofs¶

When we prove the correctness of a recursively defined function that “counts down” its argument, we are actually constructing a mathematical induction proof. Here is a small example:

def double(n) :
"""double returns an int that is twice as large as its int argument"""
"""
{ pre    n >= 0
post   ans == 2 * n
return ans }
"""
if n == 0 :
ans = 0
"""
{ 1. ans == 0                  premise
2. n == 0                    premise
3. ans == 2 * n              algebra 1 2 }
"""
else :
"""
{ 1. not(n == 0)               premise
2. n >= 0                    premise
3. n - 1 >= 0                algebra 1 2 }
"""
subans = double(n - 1)
"""{ 1. subans == 2 * (n - 1)  premise }"""  # from the function call
ans = subans + 2
"""
{ 1. ans == subans + 2         premise
2. subans == 2 * (n - 1)     premise
3. ans ==  2 * n             algebra 1 2 }
"""
"""{ 1. ans == 2 * n               premise }"""  # both cases prove the postcondition
return ans


The code and proofs are structured into two cases:

1. Basis Case: n == 0. Then, ans == 0 and ans == 2 * n, as shown by the proof in the then-arm.
2. Induction Case: n > 0. Presume that the recursive call, subans = double(n - 1), returns a value that makes subans == 2 * (n - 1). Then, ans == subans + 2 == 2 * n, as shown by the proof in the else-arm.

Thanks to mathematical induction, the above efforts prove this result

for all n >= 0, double(n) == 2 * n.

In this way, the proof of a recursively defined function’s postcondition is a proof based on mathematical induction.

Loops operate the same way. Here is the loop code for doubling an int:

n = readInt()
assert n >= 0
ans = 0
i = 0
"""
{ 1.  ans = 0                 premise
2.  i == 0                  premise
3.  ans == 2 * i            algebra 1 2 }
"""  # prove invariant for initial loop entry
while i != n :
"""
{ invariant  ans == 2 * i
modifies   ans, i }
"""
ans = ans + 2
i = i + 1
"""
{ 1. ans_old == 2 * i     premise
2. ans == ans_old + 2   premise
3. i == i_old + 1       premise
4. ans == 2 * i         algebra 1 2 3 }
""" # assuming the invariant on entry, reprove it after one more iteration

"""
{ 1. not(i != n )             premise
2.  ans == 2 * i            premise
3.  ans == 2 * n            algebra 1 2 }
"""
print ans


The code and proofs are structured into two cases:

1. Basis Case: The loop’s body has iterated zero times. Then, ans == 0 and i == 0 so, ans == 2 * i, as worked in the proof just before initial loop entry.
2. Induction Case: Presume that the loop’s previous k-1-many iterations have worked correctly and have maintained ans = 2 * i. Then, one more iteration sets ans = ans + 2 and i = i + 1, making ans == 2 * i hold true at the end of k iterations, as proved in the proof in the loop’s body.

Thanks to mathematical induction, these efforts prove this result:

for all k >= 0, if the loop iterates (repeats) k times, then ans == 2 * i after the k iterations.

But since variable i is counting the iterations, we have this stronger result, too: for all i >= 0, if the loop iterates i times, then ans == 2 * i after the i iterations.

In this way, the proof of a loop invariant property is a proof based on mathematical induction.

### 6.5.5. More Program Analysis and Mathematical Induction¶

Here is another way of applying mathematical induction to systematic program analyis.

Consider this example program, which reads a nonnegative int, n, and computes the sum, 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n, with a loop:

n = readInt("Type a nonnegative int: ")
assert n >= 0
i = 0
sum = 0
while i != n :
i = i + 1
sum = sum + i
print sum


You might test this program with some sample input integers to see if it behaves properly. Which test cases should you try? How many test cases should you try? Are you ever certain that you have tested the program sufficiently? (These questions are famous ones and do not have clear-cut answers. There are even mathematical proofs that show it is impossible to have a guaranteed-sufficient testing strategy for an arbitrary program.)

For our example, we might do this “systematic testing”:

1. We use 0 as a test; the program prints 0
2. We use 1 as a test; the program prints 1
3. We use 2 as a test; the program prints 3
4. We use 3 as a test; the program prints 6
5. We use 4 as a test; the program prints 10

We tell ourselves, “Perhaps the reason why the test case for 4 worked OK was because the test case for 3 worked OK and the loop body ran one more time”. We next realize that the test case for 3 worked OK because the test case for 2 worked OK and the loop body ran one more time. And so on.

The test cases are connected. Rather than test, 5, 6, …, 6000, …, we realize that there are really only two distinct test cases: the one for 0, which makes the loop stop immediately, and the one for a positive int, call it k+1, where if the test case for k worked correctly, then we can argue that running the loop body one more time will make the k+1 test work correctly. When we make an argument in this style, we are using mathematical induction as a kind of “systematic testing”, covering all possible test cases.

Here is our mathematical induction proof for the above example:

CLAIM: For every input n in the set, {0,1,2,...}, the program will compute sum == 0 + ...up to... + n in n iterations.

The proof is made by mathematical induction:

1. Basis Case: the input integer is 0: the program sets sum = 0 and the loop test goes immediately false. So, sum == 0 == 0 + ...up to... + 0 was computed in 0 iterations of the loop. This test case works correctly.
2. Induction Case: The input integer is some positive integer, call it, k+1. First, say that all the previous test cases on smaller integers have worked correctly; in particular, say that the program with input k computed sum = 0 + 1 + ... + k in k iterations. Call this number, sum_k. Now, for the test case of k+1, the loop proceeds the same way as it did for input k, plus it makes one more iteration. The extra iteration sets i = k+1 and then sum = sum_k + i, and the loop quits. Since the program with input k correctly computed sum_k = 0 + 1 + ... + k in k iterations, we know the program with input k+1 computes sum = (0 + 1 + ... + k) + (k+1) in k+1 iterations, which is the correct answer.

This mathematical induction argument explains why every possible test case n from the set {0, 1, 2, ...} will cause the program to compute sum == 0 + 1 + ... + n in n loop iterations.

Programs that use “counting loops” can often be argued correct using this technique. Indeed, if you reread the previous section, you realize that the point of finding a loop invariant is so that a mathematical induction argument can be made with the invariant – when the loop quits, the invariant must hold true.

### 6.5.6. A Mathematical Proof by Mathematical Induction¶

Here is a traditional use of mathematical induction – proving a fact about algebra and numbers.

It might appear a bit surprising, but the repeated sum, 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n, always totals up to ((n*n)+n)/2, no matter what value nonnegative integer, n, might be. Try some examples, and you will see this happen, e.g.:

0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6  = 21  equals  (6*6)+6 / 2,  that is,  42/2 = 21


How do we know this formula, ((n*n)+n)/2, works for all possible nonnegative integers? Should we try them all? We can use the mathematical induction technique to prove, once and for all, that the formula works correctly for all nonnegatives.

Here is what we want to prove:

                                                     n2 + n
For all integers,  n >= 0,   0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n  =  -------
2


(If you wish, you can think of n as the “input”, and think of 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n as a “loop program”, and think of the formula, ((n*n)+n)/2, as the program’s “correctness property”.) We make the proof by mathematical induction, meaning there are two cases to analyze:

1. Basis Casen = 0: In this case, the sum from 0 up to 0 is just 0. But ((0*0)+0)/2 is 0 also. So, the formula works correctly for the starting case, when n is 0.

2. Induction Case: n > 0, that is n = k+1, for some nonnegative k: We assume the induction hypothesis that the formula works correctly for the integer just before n:

0 + 1 + 2 + ... + k  =  ((k*k)+k)/2


We must show that 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + k + (k+1) equals (((k+1)*(k+1)) + (k+1)) / 2. We do algebra on the second expression, like this:

 (k+1)*(k+1) + (k+1)     (k*k) + 2k + 1 + (k+1)    (k*k) + k + 2k + 2
--------------------- =  ----------------------- = ------------------
2                        2                      2


and we can split this fraction into two pieces:

(k*k) + k + 2k + 2       (k*k) + k     2k + 2       (k*k) + k
-------------------  =  ----------- + --------  =  ----------- + (k + 1)
2                    2           2              2


But we recall the induction hypothesis, which we use to substitute:

 (k*k) + k
----------- + (k + 1)  =  (0 + 1 + 2 + ... + k) + (k + 1)
2


This proves the desired result.

The result is proved, with the basis step and the induction step, by mathematical induction. These two cases cover all the nonnegative ints, starting from zero and counting upwards as often as needed for arbitrarily large positive integers. (Example: we now know that 0+1+...+500 equals ((500*500)+500)/2, because we can use the basis step to start and apply the induction step 500 times to follow and to obtain the result for 500.)

To finish, we repeat the mathematical-induction proof law: When you are asked to prove a property of the form, “for all nonnegative integers, i, P_i holds true”, you can do so in two steps:

1. Basis step: prove the starting case, P_0.
2. Induction step: assume that P_k holds, for an anonymous integer, k, and use this induction hypothesis to prove P_k+1.

Once these steps are completed, they provide the “algorithm” for building proofs of P_0, P_1, …, P_i, …, for all the nonnegative integers.

## 6.6. Summary¶

The law for while-loops is

"""{ ... I }"""
while B :
"""
{ invariant  I
modifies   VARLIST   (those variables updated in  C) }
"""
"""
{ 1. B   premise
2. I   premise
... }
"""
C
"""{ ... I }"""

"""
{ 1. ~B    premise
2. I     premise
... }
"""


The mathematical-induction proof law is: to prove a property of the form, “for all nonnegative integers, i, P_i holds true”, do so in two steps:

1. Basis step: prove the starting case, P_0.
2. Induction step: assume that P_k holds, for an anonymous integer, k, and use this induction hypothesis to prove P_k+1.

This note was adapted from David Schmidt's CIS 301, 2008, Chapter 4 course note.